Category: 4. Periodic Table

Elements and Abundance

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler chemical substances. There are about 90 naturally occurring elements known on Earth. Using technology, scientists have been able to create nearly 30 additional elements that are not readily found in nature. Today, chemistry recognizes a total of 118 elements which are all represented on a standard chart of the elements, called the Periodic Table of Elements (Figure 2.1). Each element is represented by a one or two letter code, where the first letter is always capitalized and, if a second letter is present, it is written in lowercase. For example, the symbol for Hydrogen is H, and the symbol for carbon is C.  Some of the elements have seemingly strange letter codes, such as sodium which is Na. These letter codes are derived from latin terminology. For example, the symbol for sodium (Na) is derived from the latin word, natrium, which means sodium carbonate.

The elements vary widely in abundance. In the universe as a whole, the most common element is hydrogen (about 90%), followed by helium (most of the remaining 10%). All other elements are present in relatively minuscule amounts, as far as we can detect. On the planet Earth, however, the situation is rather different. Oxygen makes up 46.1% of the mass of Earth’s crust (the relatively thin layer of rock forming Earth’s surface), mostly in combination with other elements, while silicon makes up 28.5%. Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe, makes up only 0.14% of Earth’s crust. Table 2.1 “Elemental Composition of Earth” lists the relative abundances of elements on Earth as a whole and in Earth’s crust. Table 2.2 “Elemental Composition of a Human Body” lists the relative abundances of elements in the human body. If you compare Table 2.1 “Elemental Composition of Earth” and Table 2.2 “Elemental Composition of a Human Body”, you will find disparities between the percentage of each element in the human body and on Earth. Oxygen has the highest percentage in both cases, but carbon, the element with the second highest percentage in the body, is relatively rare on Earth and does not even appear as a separate entry in Table 2.1 “Elemental Composition of Earth”; carbon is part of the 0.174% representing “other” elements. How does the human body concentrate so many apparently rare elements?

The relative amounts of elements in the body have less to do with their abundances on Earth than with their availability in a form we can assimilate. We obtain oxygen from the air we breathe and the water we drink. We also obtain hydrogen from water. On the other hand, although carbon is present in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, and about 80% of the atmosphere is nitrogen, we obtain those two elements from the food we eat, not the air we breathe.

Atomic Theory

The modern atomic theory, proposed about 1803 by the English chemist John Dalton, is a fundamental concept that states that all elements are composed of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element. Individual atoms are extremely small; even the largest atom has an approximate diameter of only 5.4 × 10⁻¹⁰ m. With that size, it takes over 18 million of these atoms, lined up side by side, to equal the width of your little finger (about 1 cm).

Most elements in their pure form exist as individual atoms. For example, a macroscopic chunk of iron metal is composed, microscopically, of individual iron atoms. Some elements, however, exist as groups of atoms called molecules. Several important elements exist as two-atom combinations and are called diatomic molecules. In representing a diatomic molecule, we use the symbol of the element and include the subscript 2 to indicate that two atoms of that element are joined together. The elements that exist as diatomic molecules are hydrogen (H₂), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), fluorine (F₂), chlorine (Cl₂), bromine (Br₂), and iodine (I₂).

Subatomic Particles

There have been several minor but important modifications to Dalton’s atomic theory. For one thing, Dalton considered atoms to be indivisible. We know now that atoms not only can be divided but also are composed of three different kinds of particles with their own properties that are different from the chemical properties of atoms.

The first subatomic particle was identified in 1897 and called the electron. It is an extremely tiny particle, with a mass of about 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg. Experiments with magnetic fields showed that the electron has a negative electrical charge.

By 1920, experimental evidence indicated the existence of a second particle. A proton has the same amount of charge as an electron, but its charge is positive, not negative. Another major difference between a proton and an electron is mass. Although still incredibly small, the mass of a proton is 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷ kg, which is almost 2,000 times greater than the mass of an electron. Because opposite charges attract each other (while ‘like’ charges repel each other), protons attract electrons (and vice versa).

Finally, additional experiments pointed to the existence of a third particle, called the neutron. Evidence produced in 1932 established the existence of the neutron, a particle with about the same mass as a proton but with no electrical charge.

We understand now that all atoms can be broken down into subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Table 2.3 “Properties of the Subatomic Particles” lists some of their important characteristics and the symbols used to represent each particle.  Experiment have shown that protons and neutrons are concentrated in a central region of each atom called the nucleus (plural, nuclei). Electrons are outside the nucleus and orbit about it because they are attracted to the positive charge in the nucleus. Most of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus, while the orbiting electrons account for an atom’s size. As a result, an atom consists largely of empty space.

Protons Determine the Identity of an Element

As it turns out, the number of protons that an atom holds in its nucleus is the key determining feature for its chemical properties.  In short, an element is defined by the number of protons found in its nucleus. The proton number within an element is also called its Atomic Number and is represented by the mathematical term, Z. If you refer back to the Periodic Table of Elements shown in figure 2.1, you will see that the periodic table is organized by the number of protons that an element contains. Thus, as you read across each row of the Periodic Table (left to right), each element increases by one proton (or one Atomic Number, Z).

Isotopes, Allotropes, and Atomic Mass

How many neutrons are in atoms of a particular element? At first it was thought that the number of neutrons in a nucleus was also characteristic of an element. However, it was found that atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons. Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, 99% of the carbon atoms on Earth have 6 neutrons and 6 protons in their nuclei; about 1% of the carbon atoms have 7 neutrons and 6 protons in their nuclei. Naturally occurring carbon on Earth, therefore, is actually a mixture of isotopes, albeit a mixture that is 99% carbon with 6 neutrons in each nucleus. Isotope composition has proven to be a useful method for dating many rock layers and fossils.

Most elements exist as mixtures of isotopes. In fact, there are currently over 3,500 isotopes known for all the elements. When scientists discuss individual isotopes, they need an efficient way to specify the number of neutrons in any particular nucleus. The atomic mass (A) of an atom is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (Fig. 2.6). Given the atomic mass for a nucleus (and knowing the atomic number, Z, of that particular atom), you can determine the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass.

A simple way of indicating the mass number of a particular isotope is to list it as a superscript on the left side of an element’s symbol. Atomic numbers are often listed as a subscript on the left side of an element’s symbol. Thus, we might see

which indicates a particular isotope of copper. The 29 is the atomic number, Z, (which is the same for all copper atoms), while the 63 is the atomic mass (A) of the isotope. To determine the number of neutrons in this isotope, we subtract 29 from 63: 63 − 29 = 34, so there are 34 neutrons in this atom.

Allotropes of an element are different and separate from the term isotope and should not be confused. Some chemical elements can form more than one type of structural lattice, these different structural lattices are known as allotropes.  This is the case for phosphorus. White or yellow phosphorus forms when four phosphorus atoms align in a tetrahedral conformation. The other crystal lattices of phosphorus are more complex and can be formed by exposing phosphorus to different temperatures and pressures.  For example, the cage-like lattice of red phosphorus can be formed by heating white phosphorus over 280^oC . Note that allotropic changes affect how the atoms of the element interact with one another to form a 3-dimensional structure.  They do not alter the sample with regard to the atomic isotope forms that are present, and DO NOT alter or affect the atomic mass (A) of the element.

Different allotropes of different elements can have different physical and chemical properties and are thus, still important to consider. For example, oxygen has two different allotropes with the dominant allotrope being the diatomic form of oxygen, O₂.  However, oxygen can also exist as O₃, ozone. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is produced as a by-product in automobile exhaust, and other industrial processes where it contributes to pollution. It has a very pungent smell and is a very powerful oxidant.  It can cause damage to mucous membranes and respiratory tissues in animals.  Exposure to ozone has been linked to premature death, asthma, bronchitis, heart attacks and other cardiopulmonary diseases.  In the upper atmosphere, it is created by natural electrical discharges and exists at very low concentrations. The presence of ozone in the upper atmosphere is critically important as it intercepts very damaging ultraviolet radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the Earth’s surface.

The periodic table is useful for understanding atomic properties that show periodic trends. One such property is the atomic radius (Figure “Trends on the Periodic Table”). As mentioned earlier, the higher the shell number, the farther from the nucleus the electrons in that shell are likely to be. In other words, the size of an atom is generally determined by the number of the valence electron shell. Therefore, as we go down a column on the periodic table, the atomic radius increases. As we go across a period on the periodic table, however, electrons are being added to the same valence shell; meanwhile, more protons are being added to the nucleus, so the positive charge of the nucleus is increasing. The increasing positive charge attracts the electrons more strongly, pulling them closer to the nucleus. Consequently, as we go across a period, the atomic radius decreases. These trends are seen clearly in Figure “Trends on the Periodic Table”.

Figure, Trends on the Periodic Table. The relative sizes of the atoms show several trends with regard to the structure of the periodic table. Atoms become larger going down a column and smaller going across a period.

Elements that have similar chemical properties are grouped in columns called groups (or families). As well as being numbered, some of these groups have names—for example, alkali metals (the first column of elements), alkaline earth metals (the second column of elements), halogens (the next-to-last column of elements), and noble gases (the last column of elements).

Each row of elements on the periodic table is called a period. Periods have different lengths; the first period has only 2 elements (hydrogen and helium), while the second and third periods have 8 elements each. The fourth and fifth periods have 18 elements each, and later periods are so long that a segment from each is removed and placed beneath the main body of the table.

Certain elemental properties become apparent in a survey of the periodic table as a whole. Every element can be classified as either a metal, a nonmetal, or a semimetal, as shown in Figure “Types of Elements”. A metal is a substance that is shiny, typically (but not always) silvery in color, and an excellent conductor of electricity and heat. Metals are also malleable (they can be beaten into thin sheets) and ductile (they can be drawn into thin wires). A nonmetal is typically dull and a poor conductor of electricity and heat. Solid nonmetals are also very brittle. As shown in Figure “Types of Elements”, metals occupy the left three-fourths of the periodic table, while nonmetals (except for hydrogen) are clustered in the upper right-hand corner of the periodic table. The elements with properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals are called semimetals (or metalloids). Elements adjacent to the bold line in the right-hand portion of the periodic table have semimetal properties.

Another way to categorize the elements of the periodic table is shown in Figure b “Special Names for Sections of the Periodic Table”. The first two columns on the left and the last six columns on the right are called the main group elements. The ten-column block between these columns contains the transition metals. The two rows beneath the main body of the periodic table contain the inner transition metals. The elements in these two rows are also referred to as, respectively, the lanthanide metals and the actinide metals.

The periodic table is organized on the basis of similarities in elemental properties, but what explains these similarities? It turns out that the shape of the periodic table reflects the filling of subshells with electrons, as shown in Figure c “The Shape of the Periodic Table”. Starting with the first period and going from left to right, the table reproduces the order of filling of the electron subshells in atoms. Furthermore, elements in the same column share the same valence shell electron configuration. For example, all elements in the first column have a single s electron in their valence shells, so their electron configurations can be described as ns¹ (where n represents the shell number). This last observation is crucial. Chemistry is largely the result of interactions between the valence electrons of different atoms. Thus, atoms that have the same valence shell electron configuration will have similar chemistry.

Figure c, The Shape of the Periodic Table. The shape of the periodic table reflects the order in which electron shells and subshells fill with electrons.

In the 19th century, many previously unknown elements were discovered, and scientists noted that certain sets of elements had similar chemical properties. For example, chlorine, bromine, and iodine react with other elements (such as sodium) to make similar compounds. Likewise, lithium, sodium, and potassium react with other elements (such as oxygen) to make similar compounds. Why is this so?

In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, organized the elements by atomic mass and grouped them according to their chemical properties. Later that decade, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, organized all the known elements according to similar properties. He left gaps in his table for what he thought were undiscovered elements, and he made some bold predictions regarding the properties of those undiscovered elements. When elements were later discovered whose properties closely matched Mendeleev’s predictions, his version of the table gained favor in the scientific community. Because certain properties of the elements repeat on a regular basis throughout the table (that is, they are periodic), it became known as the periodic table.

The periodic table is one of the cornerstones of chemistry because it organizes all the known elements on the basis of their chemical properties. A modern version is shown in Figure “A Modern Periodic Table”. Most periodic tables provide additional data (such as atomic mass) in a box that contains each element’s symbol. The elements are listed in order of atomic number. A modern periodic table lists elements left to right by atomic number.

Figure A Modern Periodic Table